Current events in the United States (and elsewhere) have once again raised concerns over whether we should expect honesty and other ethical behaviors from our government bureaucrats and politicians. In order to gain some perspective on this question we should investigate the philosophical and historical predecessors to our current system of government. Specifically, we should look to Plato for guidance and to world system history for context.
In Part 1 we will explore the philosophical and theoretical aspects of our question. In Part 2 we will explore the world system historical aspects of our question. In Part 3 we will evaluate our question in light of the information we encounter in Parts 1 and 2.
SEGMENT 1: Philosophical Guidance - The Republic
Plato wrote two dialogues that are relevant to our investigation: The Republic and Gorgias. The Republic is Plato's blueprint for a just state and Gorgias is an argument against tyrants.
One of the most famous sections of The Republic is Plato's discussion of the concept of the Noble Lie (Book III §§ 414c ff.), [Note 1] by which the citizens of the republic are united toward a single goal. The Greek words which are rendered as 'Noble Lie' are 'γενναιον τι εν ψευδομενους,' and Paul Shorey translates the entire passage this way: "Perhaps we can contrive one of those opportune falsehoods. of which we were just now speaking, so as by one noble lie to persuade if possible the rulers themselves, but failing that the rest of the city." [Note 2] (Plato/Shorey 1937 pp. 300-301).
Other parses for the Greek phrase by other translators include 'necessary falsehoods' (Jowett and Campbell 1894 p. 114 and p. 156), 'bold flight of invention' (Plato/Cornford 1945 p. 106), and 'monstrous falsehood' (Lee 2007 p. xxxv or Location 1452 in the Kindle eBook).
In other words, the rulers of the republic must create lies, and the citizens must revere those lies, in order for the work of the State to be successful. It is interesting to note that Plato earlier in Book III (§§ 397d ff. ) and later in Book X (§§ 595a ff. ) will characterize the poets, playwrights, and other artists as imitators of life and creators of falsehood who must be banned from the republic, or brought under total State control, lest their lies compete with, and therefore undermine, the Noble Lies of the rulers. (For a more detailed analysis of this topic, see Moss (2007)). [Note 3]
Also in Book III (§§ 473d ff.) Plato introduces his conception of the Philosopher-King and the tripartite division of the republic into three divisions which correspond to the three primary aspects of a human being: 1) Base physical appetites; 2) Emotions; and 3) Knowledge and Reason.
The first division comprises the largest portion of the polis and includes all those people who are directly engaged in the economy: craftsmen, farmers, merchants, bankers, manufacturers, doctors, dentists, etc. Plato calls these people ἐπιθυμητικόν ("the appetitive"). The second, and smaller, division contains the police and military. Plato calls these people θυμοειδές ("the spirited"). The third and smallest division is composed of scholars, scientists, and other highly educated experts. Plato calls these people φιλομαθης ("the studious") (literally "lovers of knowledge"). (Plato/Shorey 1937 p. 380 and p. 398; see also Voegelin 1978 pp. 22 ff.). [Note 4]
The 'Noble Lie' that Socrates proposes as an example is a "Phoenician Tale" that explains the different classes by referencing the amount of gold, silver, iron, and brass that God fashioned into each person. Those with gold in their constitution would, of course, become the Rulers, while the rest of the Republic's citizens, who were given various amounts of the remaining metals, would fill in the rest of the classes. Socrates warns that sometimes a man with a silver or brass soul could father a son with a golden soul, or that a golden soul could father a silver or brass child, so intermarriage among the classes was to be closely monitored and vigorously discouraged. [Note 5] (Plato/Shorey 1937 pp. 304-307).
SEGMENT 2: Philosophical Guidance - Gorgias
The Gorgias is an early dialogue of Plato's and the only one where Socrates abandons his normal pedagogical method and engages in exhortation rather than argument. The reason for this becomes clear as the dialogue progresses because Socrates is passionate about living a moral life and, for him, that requires abnegation and the abandonment of materialist ambitions. [Note 6] (Editor's Introduction pp. 229-230)
The materialist position is presented by Callicles, one of the members of the Athenian Assembly, who suggests that the happy man is one who allows his passions and appetites to grow unfettered and who has the power to satisfy these wants. He maintains that this is the true nature of mankind and that men who, like Socrates, praise self-control, are acting out of weakness and cowardice because they lack the power to take what they want. [Note 7] (§482c-486d., pp. 265-269).
Socrates replies (at length) that men of power are bound to do wrong and harm others in their pursuit of power, pleasure, and wealth. To do wrong, according to Socrates, is the worst thing that could befall a man. Therefore, it is better to suffer harm at the hands of a tyrant than behave as they do and do wrong to others. (§500b ff., pp. 283 ff., especially §507d ff., pp. 290 ff.) [Note 8]
EPILOGUE:
This brief incursion into Platonic philosophy will be augmented by a (brief) foray into world system history in Part 2. In Part 3 we will form conclusions and evaluations based upon the theoretical and historical information at our disposal.
Notes:
1. The first mention of the 'Noble Lie,' to which Socrates refers in §414c, is at §389b, where the Greek phrase is 'προσεκαι ψευδεσθαι.' Shorey's translation is "The rulers then of the city may, if anybody, fitly lie on account of enemies or citizens for the benefit of the state." (Plato/Shorey pp. 212-213).
2. If you would like to see the complete Greek text, here it is: Τις αν ουν ημιν, ην δ΄ εγω, μηχανη γενοιτο των ψευδων των εν δεοντι γιγνομενων, ων δη νυν ελεγομεν, γενναιον τι εν ψευδομενους πεισαι μαλιστα μεν και αυτους τους αρχοντας, ει δε μη, την αλλην πολιν; Ποιον τι; εφη. (Plato/Shorey 1937 p. 380). There are three Greek words that are key in this passage: 1) μηχανη; 2) γενναιον; and 3) ψευδομενους. Shorey notes that μηχανη refers to 'an ingenious device employed by a superior intelligence to circumvent necessity or play providence with the vulgar....' (Plato/Shorey 1937 p. 380-381 note a.) The word γενναιον translates directly as 'brave,' (the Greek word for 'noble' is 'ευγενής') but the implication behind the word is that it is a bold, brave action taken by the nobility because of their right to govern the masses (which explains Cornford's translation of the passage). The word ψευδομενους, of course, refers to the lie itself.
3. At §376d, Socrates also discusses the inclusion of 'false tales' in educational materials and argues that the State must regulate these materials as they must also regulate artistic productions. (Plato/Shorey 1937 pp. 174 ff.)
4. What is often left out of Plato's description of the three divisions is the economy that corresponds to each level. Because the Philosopher King has all the power, he is forbidden to own any property or other wealth. His needs are all provided for by the State, but he cannot control great power and great wealth at the same time. The members of the Appetitive division are permitted to acquire as much wealth as they can, commensurate with their contribution to society. (The Guardians are organized into a mini-communist state who share wives and children.) It was this provision in the Republic's blueprint that thwarted Plato's implementation of his ideal Republic in Syracuse (twice!). Once it became clear to the wealthy rulers of Syracuse that they would have to abandon their wealth or their power, they rebelled and forced Plato to return to Athens in disgrace. (§417a-b, §547b. Also, Letter VII (Plato/Post 1961 pp. 1574-1598), and Eric Voegelin's analysis of the situation in Syracuse (Voegelin 1956 pp. 14-23).
5. On this topic Shorey notes: "The four classes [i.e., gold, silver, iron, and brass] are not castes, but are species which will generally breed true." (Plato/Shorey 1937 p. 305 note c).
6. All references are to Plato/Woodhead 1961.
7. In §481 ff., Socrates points out that Callicles is a fickle politician who will say in the Assembly whatever the people want to hear. (Plato/Woodhead 1961 pp. 265 ff.) On the topic of Will-to-Power, we will be analyzing Nietzsche's contribution to this subject in a later blog entry.
8. Eric Voegelin has a masterful interpretation of this dialogue and it is well worth reading in addition to Plato's original text. (Voegelin 1956 pp. 24-45).
Selected Bibliography:
1. Jowett, Benjamin and Campbell, Lewis (Eds.). (1894). Plato's Republic; The Greek Text Vol III: Notes. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
2. Lee, Desmond (Tr.). (2007). Plato: The Republic (pp. 64 ff.). New York, NY: Penguin Classics. Originally published in 1956, revised edition 1974. References are to the Amazon Kindle Edition of this work.
3. Moss, Jessica. (2007). What is Imitative Poetry and Why is it Bad?. In G. R. F. Ferrari (Ed.), Cambridge Companion to Plato's Republic (pp. 415-444). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. An earlier draft of this paper is available online at: http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/moss/WhatisImitativePoetry.pdf.
4. Plato. Paul Shorey (Tr.). (1937). The Republic, with an English Translation by Paul Shorey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5. Plato. Francis MacDonald Cornford (Tr.). (1945). Republic of Plato. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
6. Plato. (1961). Gorgias. In Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Eds.), W. D. Woodhead (Tr.). Plato: The Collected Dialogues Including the Letters (pp. 229-307). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series LXXI.
7. Plato. (1961). Laws. In Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Eds.), A. E. Taylor (Tr.). Plato: The Collected Dialogues Including the Letters (pp. 1225-1513). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series LXXI.
8. Plato. (1961). Letters. In Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Eds.), L. A. Post (Tr.). Plato: The Collected Dialogues Including the Letters (pp. 1560-1606). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series LXXI.
9. Plato. (1961). The Republic. In Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Eds.), Paul Shorey (Tr.). Plato: The Collected Dialogues Including the Letters (pp. 575-844). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series LXXI.
10. Voegelin, Eric. (1978). Anamnesis. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
11. Voegelin, Eric. (1956). Order and History Volume III: Plato and Aristotle. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press.
12. Voegelin, Eric. (1966). Plato. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. This is a reprint of the Plato portion of Order and History Volume III and is sometimes easier to find than the larger work. The pagination is the same.